Motivation at work

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Motivation

I. Determining whether a performance problem is due to motivation

A. Performance is a function of a number of things motivation, training, ability

1. Can't motivate someone to do something if doesn't have the ability

. Need to diagnose cause of performance problem

B. To determine if poor performance due to motivation, ask question "Could they do it if their lives depended on it?"

1. Yes motivation problem

. No ability, training, or practice problem

II. Understanding and Managing motivation

A. Understanding motivation (need, expectancy and equity models of motivation)

1. Need theories People motivated to fulfill needs

a. Alderfer's ERG model

i. Existence needs Physical and safety needs

ii. Relatedness needs Needs to belong

iii. Growth needs Needs for self-esteem and self-actualization

b. McClelland's needs

i. Need for achievement need for challenges, need to show competence

ii. Need for affiliation need to associate with others

iii. Need for power need to influence others

. Expectancy Model Motivation is thought to be a result of individual expectancies that effort will lead to valued outcomes (first and second-order) ("Expectancy theory")

a. expectancy perceived link between effort and first-order outcomes (expressed as a probability)

b. first-order outcomes direct consequences of effort (e.g., performance) second order outcomes follow from first-order outcomes (e.g., raise)

c. instrumentalities perceived link between first-order outcomes (e.g., performance) and second-order outcomes (e.g., rewards)

. Equity Model People are thought to compare themselves to others ("Equity theory")

a. compare ratio of own inputs to own outcomes to the ratio of inputs to

outcomes of a comparison other; if not equal, motivated to restore equity

b. types of work inputs education, experience, ideas, hours, effort, loyalty, intelligence, seniority, etc.)

c. types of work outcomes pay, promotions, job status, interesting work, supervisory approval, co-worker respect, working conditions, job security, fringe benefits,etc.)

d. methods to restore equity to reduce psychological tension

i. raise, lower own outcomes

ii. raise, lower own inputs

iii. raise, lower other's outcomes

iv. raise, lower other's inputs

v. distort perceptions of outcomes, inputs

vi. change comparison other

vii. leave situation

B. Tools for managing motivation (goal setting model, job characteristics theory, operant conditioning)

1. Goal setting Management by objectives (MBO)

For best performance

a. set specific goals

b. set moderately difficult goals

c. provide feedback in same units, format as goals (e.g., in terms of specificity, type of performance)

. Job characteristics model Job redesign

a. For high motivation and performance, redesign job to be high in following characteristics

i. task identity degree to which job entails completing a meaningful whole (e.g., product, service) from beginning to end

ii. feedback degree to which performing the job itself results in feedback about performance

iii. autonomy degree to which the worker is allowed to decide when, where, what, how to perform the job

iv. task significance degree to which the job is critical to the achievement of the organization's goals

v. skill variety degree to which the job requires many types of skills

b. Note that this doesn't work well as a way to motivate people not interested

growing, reaching their potential.

. Operant conditioning Organizational Behavior Management (OBM)

a. Principle tenet Behavior is a function of its consequences (in other words, behavior that is rewarded will be repeated; behavior that is not rewarded will decrease)

b. Antecedents (discriminative stimuli that precede behavior) serve to cue behavior. They tell individuals that a certain behavior is desired and is likely to be rewarded.

c. Consequences (stimuli that follow behavior) should be

i. positive (negative have unwanted effects)

ii. frequent

iii. immediate

iv. contingent

d. Types of consequences in organizations

i. informational (e.g., feedback)potent, cheap, easy to

arrange, underutilized

ii. social (e.g., supervisory approval)potent, harder to arrange (must be consistent)

iii. organizational (e.g., raises, promotions)not frequent,

often not contingent

iv. generalized (e.g., tokens, points, money)

e. Procedures used to strengthen or weaken behavior (contingencies)

i. positive reinforcement arrange for positive consequence to follow behavior

ii. negative reinforcement arrange for aversive

stimulus to stop following a desired behavior (also

called avoidance or escape)

iii. punishment (by application or removal) either

arrange for an aversive stimulus to follow an

undesired behavior or withdraw a positive stimulus

following the undesired behavior (e.g., time-out)

Note punishment has side effects resentment of

punisher by punished; models an aggressive style;

works as long as punisher is around.

iv. extinction remove the positive consequence that is

following the behavior

f. Schedules of reinforcement

i. Continuous reinforcement (CRF) positive consequence provided after every instance of the behavior; used to train behavior

ii. Partial reinforcement (PRF) positive consequence provided either after a certain number of the behaviors (fixed ratio, variable ratio) or after a certain amount of time if the behavior occurred during that time (fixed interval, variable interval; used to maintain behavior

Motivation

I. Determining whether a performance problem is due to motivation

A. Performance is a function of a number of things motivation, training, ability

1. Can't motivate someone to do something if doesn't have the ability

. Need to diagnose cause of performance problem

B. To determine if poor performance due to motivation, ask question "Could they do it if their lives depended on it?"

1. Yes motivation problem

. No ability, training, or practice problem

II. Understanding and Managing motivation

A. Understanding motivation (need, expectancy and equity models of motivation)

1. Need theories People motivated to fulfill needs

a. Alderfer's ERG model

i. Existence needs Physical and safety needs

ii. Relatedness needs Needs to belong

iii. Growth needs Needs for self-esteem and self-actualization

b. McClelland's needs

i. Need for achievement need for challenges, need to show competence

ii. Need for affiliation need to associate with others

iii. Need for power need to influence others

. Expectancy Model Motivation is thought to be a result of individual expectancies that effort will lead to valued outcomes (first and second-order) ("Expectancy theory")

a. expectancy perceived link between effort and first-order outcomes (expressed as a probability)

b. first-order outcomes direct consequences of effort (e.g., performance) second order outcomes follow from first-order outcomes (e.g., raise)

c. instrumentalities perceived link between first-order outcomes (e.g., performance) and second-order outcomes (e.g., rewards)

. Equity Model People are thought to compare themselves to others ("Equity theory")

a. compare ratio of own inputs to own outcomes to the ratio of inputs to

outcomes of a comparison other; if not equal, motivated to restore equity

b. types of work inputs education, experience, ideas, hours, effort, loyalty, intelligence, seniority, etc.)

c. types of work outcomes pay, promotions, job status, interesting work, supervisory approval, co-worker respect, working conditions, job security, fringe benefits,etc.)

d. methods to restore equity to reduce psychological tension

i. raise, lower own outcomes

ii. raise, lower own inputs

iii. raise, lower other's outcomes

iv. raise, lower other's inputs

v. distort perceptions of outcomes, inputs

vi. change comparison other

vii. leave situation

B. Tools for managing motivation (goal setting model, job characteristics theory, operant conditioning)

1. Goal setting Management by objectives (MBO)

For best performance

a. set specific goals

b. set moderately difficult goals

c. provide feedback in same units, format as goals (e.g., in terms of specificity, type of performance)

. Job characteristics model Job redesign

a. For high motivation and performance, redesign job to be high in following characteristics

i. task identity degree to which job entails completing a meaningful whole (e.g., product, service) from beginning to end

ii. feedback degree to which performing the job itself results in feedback about performance

iii. autonomy degree to which the worker is allowed to decide when, where, what, how to perform the job

iv. task significance degree to which the job is critical to the achievement of the organization's goals

v. skill variety degree to which the job requires many types of skills

b. Note that this doesn't work well as a way to motivate people not interested

growing, reaching their potential.

. Operant conditioning Organizational Behavior Management (OBM)

a. Principle tenet Behavior is a function of its consequences (in other words, behavior that is rewarded will be repeated; behavior that is not rewarded will decrease)

b. Antecedents (discriminative stimuli that precede behavior) serve to cue behavior. They tell individuals that a certain behavior is desired and is likely to be rewarded.

c. Consequences (stimuli that follow behavior) should be

i. positive (negative have unwanted effects)

ii. frequent

iii. immediate

iv. contingent

d. Types of consequences in organizations

i. informational (e.g., feedback)potent, cheap, easy to

arrange, underutilized

ii. social (e.g., supervisory approval)potent, harder to arrange (must be consistent)

iii. organizational (e.g., raises, promotions)not frequent,

often not contingent

iv. generalized (e.g., tokens, points, money)

e. Procedures used to strengthen or weaken behavior (contingencies)

i. positive reinforcement arrange for positive consequence to follow behavior

ii. negative reinforcement arrange for aversive

stimulus to stop following a desired behavior (also

called avoidance or escape)

iii. punishment (by application or removal) either

arrange for an aversive stimulus to follow an

undesired behavior or withdraw a positive stimulus

following the undesired behavior (e.g., time-out)

Note punishment has side effects resentment of

punisher by punished; models an aggressive style;

works as long as punisher is around.

iv. extinction remove the positive consequence that is

following the behavior

f. Schedules of reinforcement

i. Continuous reinforcement (CRF) positive consequence provided after every instance of the behavior; used to train behavior

ii. Partial reinforcement (PRF) positive consequence provided either after a certain number of the behaviors (fixed ratio, variable ratio) or after a certain amount of time if the behavior occurred during that time (fixed interval, variable interval; used to maintain behavior

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